When prices are rising over time which of the following inventory costing methods?

Inventory Accounting Methods Explained With Usable Examples and Expert Advice

This guide on inventory cost accounting goes beyond simple costing to provide professionals everything they need to choose a method for financial reporting. We provide definitions, formulas, examples, expert advice and comparison charts to help you understand the concepts.

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In this article:

  • Cost flow assumptions and how to use them
  • When to use each inventory costing method
  • How to calculate the weighted average cost (WAC)

What Is Inventory Costing?

Inventory costing, also called inventory cost accounting, is when companies assign costs to products. These costs also include incidental fees such as storage, administration and market fluctuation. Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) use standardized accounting rules to ensure companies do not overstate these costs.

Inventory costing is a part of inventory control technique. Proper inventory control within a supply chain helps reduce the total inventory costs and assists in determining how much product a company should carry. All this information helps companies decide the needed margins to assign to each product or product type.

Industry expert Steven J. Weil, Ph.D. and President at RMS Accounting discusses inventory costing and tracking inventory in the real world. He says,

“The best way to track shrinkage is still regular physical inventories, to check that what the system is saying is correct.”

“We typically want to cost the stock by departments. Setting similar margins in each department is easier to track. These similar margins show us when there is shrinkage and how much that product is bringing in (and what it could be bringing in).”

There are several approaches to cost accounting. These include:

  • Standard costing
  • Lean accounting
  • Activity-based
  • Resource consumption
  • Throughput
  • Marginal costing

Cost of Goods Sold vs. Inventory

In accounting, the difference in cost of goods sold (COGS) and inventory values are represented by where the accountant records them. Companies value inventory at its cost to them and as a part of their current assets. COGS represents the inventory costs of goods sold to customers.

Accountants record the ending inventory balance as a current asset on the balance sheet. When inventory increases, the assets on the balance sheet increase. When inventory decreases, the assets on the balance sheet also decrease. Accountants also record the change in inventory as a part of the COGS on the income statement.

Instead of showing a change in inventory as a COGS adjustment, accountants adjust some income statements to show the calculation of COGS as:

Beginning Inventory + Net Purchases = Goods Available for Sale - Ending Inventory

Companies generally report inventory value at their paid cost. However, a manufacturer would report inventory at the cost to produce the item, including the costs of raw materials, labor and overhead. Usually, inventory is a significant, if not the largest, asset reported on a company’s balance sheet.

Inventory Costing Methods

The method companies use to cost their inventory directly guides the income and inventory value they report on their financial statements. Each company chooses a systematic approach to calculating and reporting its inventory turnover, and regulators expect them to stick to that method every year.

There are four main methods to compute COGS and ending inventory for a period.

  • First In, First Out (FIFO):
    Companies sell the inventory first that they bought first.
  • Last In, First Out (LIFO):
    Companies sell the inventory first that they bought last.
  • Weighted Average Cost (WAC):
    Companies average the costs of inventory and how much they sell over the period.
  • Specific Identification:
    Not technically a cost-flow method but allowable under GAAP, this option often uses serial numbers to differentiate products and their inventory cost specifically.

GAAP covers FIFO, WAC and Specific Identification. GAAP does not cover LIFO, but it is mentioned above for comparison purposes.

To compare methods, consider the example of Jack’s Furniture and its bookcase sales. Regardless of which cost flow assumption the company uses, the balance sheet for the period starts the same. This journal shows the same beginning inventory, purchase and associated costs:

Example Beginning Inventory and Purchases

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
1-Nov Begin Inventory 50 $100 $5,500
6-Nov Purchase 50 $110 $5,500 50 $110 $5,500

However, when a customer buys 60 units, the difference in these cost flow assumptions is clear. In FIFO, the ending inventory cost ends up higher to reflect the increase in prices. As a comparison, in LIFO, the ending inventory cost is lower as a reflection of the increasing prices of the bookcase. In the WAC example, the ending inventory cost is in the middle of LIFO and FIFO, showing that the price changed.

FIFO Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
9-Nov Sale 50 $100 $5,500
10 $110 $1,100 40 $110 $4,400

LIFO Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
9-Nov Sale 50 $100 $5,500
10 $100 $1,000 40 $100 $4,000

WAC Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
9-Nov Sale 60 $105 $6,300 40 $105 $4,200

If these transactions were the only ones in this period and the sales were $12,000, the income statement and the balance sheet would look like the following:

FIFO, LIFO, and WAC Example

FIFOLIFOWAC
Income Statement Under Method
Sales $12,000 $12,000 $12,000
COGS $6,100 $6,500 $6,300
Gross Profit $5,900 $5,500 $5,700
Balance Sheet Under Method
Inventory $4,400 $4,000 $4,200

As noted, specific identification is not technically a cost flow assumption, but it is a technique for costing inventory. In this case, the physical flow of inventory matches the method and is not reliant on timing for cost determination. The use of serial numbers or identification tags accommodate the use of this method and the identification of each item in inventory, capturing when the company bought the item and how much it paid.

Consider an art dealer that specializes in only one product type, handmade globes. An example of his inventory flow follows:

Specific Identification Example

Purchased at WholesaleSold at Retail
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
1-Jan Begin Inventory 10 $10,000 $100,000
15-Jan Sale 5 $21,000 $105,000
16-Jan Purchase 9 $12,000 $108,000
18-Jan Sale 7 $21,000 $147,000
16-Jan Purchase 13 $9,900 $128,000
26-Jan Sale 5 $21,000 $105,000
29-Jan Purchase 4 $11,000 $44,000
Totals 36 $380,700 17 $357,000

From this information and the information about which specific products the dealer sold over the period, he can calculate the following figures:

Ending Inventory, COGS, and Gross Profit for Specific Identification

Total AvailableEnding Inventory Units (Not Sold)Ending Inventory CostCOGSGross Profit
10 @ $10,000 (1-Jan) 6 $60,000 $40,000
9 @ $12,000 (16-Jan) 7 $84,000 $24,000
13 @ $9,900 (23-Jan) 3 $29,700 $99,000
4 @ $11,000 (29-Jan) 3 $33,000 $11,000
Totals 19 $206,700 $174,000 $183,000

Ending inventory and COGS are based on what the dealer sold or did not sell from each specifically identified purchase or beginning inventory. Notice how he separated each purchase based on what he originally paid for them. He knows that customers purchase his handmade items based on which specific ones they prefer, not on the lot he bought them in. The gross profit is period retail sales minus the total spent originally for the specific goods he sold during the period.

Less mainstream methods not covered under GAAP include:

  • Highest In, First Out (HIFO): Companies sell the highest-cost inventory first.
  • Lowest In, First Out (LOFO): Companies sell the lowest-cost inventory first.
  • First Expired, First Out (FEFO): Companies sell the first-expiring inventory first.

Using the example from above of the bookcases at Jack’s Furniture, the journal starts the same.

Example Beginning Inventory and Purchases

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
1-Jan Begin Inventory 50 $100 $5,500
6-Nov Purchase 50 $110 $5,500 50 $110 $5,500

The COGS and inventory balance once again change when customers buy 60 units under the HIFO and LOFO methods during a period. The HIFO example removes the highest cost inventory first, leaving less value in stock, and the LOFO example removes the lowest cost inventory first, leaving a higher value in stock.

HIFO Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
9-Nov Sale 50 $110 $5,500
10 $100 $1,000 40 $100 $4,000

LOFO Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
9-Nov Sale 50 $100 $5,500
10 $110 $1,100 40 $110 $4,400

For the income statement and the balance sheet for $12,000 worth of sales, HIFO and LOFO would compare as the following:

HIFO and LOFO Example

HIFOLIFO
Income Statement Under Method
Sales $12,000 $12,000
COGS $6,500 $6,100
Gross Profit $5,500 $5,900
Balance Sheet Under Method
Inventory $4,000 $4,400

In FEFO, expiration dates drive the sales. For example, if a retailer began with and purchased a total of 80 units and sold 40 units with two different expiration dates, it would look like the following:

FEFO Example

PurchasesCOGSInventory Balance
Date Action Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total Units Unit Cost Total
1-Nov Begin Inventory
(Expiry 6-Dec)
50 $10 $500
6-Nov Purchase
(Expiry 2-Dec)
30 $11 $330 50 $11 $330
9-Nov Sale 30 $11 $330
10 $10 $100 40 $10 $400

The items in stock after the sale have a later expiration date. The company exhausts the stock with the earliest expiration date first.

Inventory Valuation Adjustments and Estimates

GAAP allows adjustments in inventory valuation when it has an uncertain future, such as when it may become obsolete. Methods for these adjustments include:

  • Lower of Cost or Market (LCM):
    Companies record the lowest cost, either the purchase price or the price at market, of their inventory.
  • Net Realizable Value (NRV):
    Companies record the estimated selling price, less the cost of their sale or disposal.

Finally, some methods estimate the cost value of the ending inventory:

  • Retail Inventory Method:
    Companies calculate the cost of inventory in stock based on the relationship to their retail price.
  • Gross Profit Method:
    Companies calculate their inventory amount and COGS utilizing a ratio to sales.

Weighted Average Inventory Costing or Average Cost Inventory Method

The weighted average inventory costing method, also called the average cost inventory method, is one of the GAAP-compliant approaches companies use to value their business stock. This method calculates the per-unit cost using a weighted average for the cost of goods sold and the inventory.

The formula for the weighted average cost method is a per unit calculation. Divide the total cost of goods available for sale by the units available for each inventory item.

WAC = COGS / Inventory (Sold)

For example, Trax is a small business that purchases and sells snowboards. For November, the following shows its purchases and sales:

DateNumber Units Sold per PurchasedActual Units CostActual Total Cost
1-Nov 200 $250.00 $50,000
3-Nov -100
4-Nov 200 $265.00 $53,000
9-Nov -75
10-Nov 150 $245.00 $36,750
15-Nov -200
22-Nov 300 $225.00 $67,500
25-Nov -300
26-Nov 300 $270.00 $81,000
27-Nov -300
30-Nov 400 $240.00 $96,000
Ending Inventory 575

The ending inventory is the total units available minus the total units sold during the period. In this example, the ending inventory = (200 + 200 + 150 + 300 + 300 + 400) - (100 + 75 + 200 + 300 + 300) = 1550 units purchased - 975 units sold = 575 units remaining.

Calculate the weighted average cost for the snowboards by using the following chart that shows the number of units purchased, the cost for each unit on the date purchased and the total cost paid for the purchase on that day.

DateNumber Units Sold per PurchasedActual Units CostActual Total Cost
1-Nov 200 $250.00 $50,000
4-Nov 200 $260.00 $53,000
10-Nov 150 $245.00 $36,750
22-Nov 300 $225.00 $67,500
26-Nov 300 $270.00 $81,000
30-Nov 400 $240.00 $96,000
1,550 $384,250

The weighted average unit cost based on the chart above for Trax in November was $384,250/1550 = $247.90 per unit.

The cost of goods sold (COGS) valuation is the number of units sold multiplied by the weighted average cost.

COGS = 975 x $247.90 = $241,702.50

The ending inventory valuation is the 575 units remaining multiplied by the weighted average cost.

Inventory = 575 x $247.90 = $142,542.50

Together, the COGS and the inventory valuations add up to the actual total cost available for sale.

Actual Total Cost Available For Sale = $241,702.50 + $142,542.50 = $384,250

Inventory Cost Flow Assumptions

An inventory cost flow assumption is the method accountants use to remove their company’s inventory costs and report them as cost of goods sold for accounting valuation. Examples of these assumptions include FIFO, LIFO and WAC.

The cost flow assumptions do not necessarily represent the actual physical flow of goods. They are merely the costs assigned to the company’s inventory units. The main inventory costing methods that are GAAP-compliant are FIFO and WAC. LIFO is also included below for comparison purposes:

Main Inventory Costing Methods

Cash Flow AssumptionExplanationWhen to UseEffect on Financial Statements
LIFO
(Last In, First Out)
Companies assign the most recent cost to inventory for COGS. When prices are rising (inflation), the COGS is the highest with the taxable income lowest. During a period of rising costs: Balance sheet - lower inventory costs, shareholder equity lower; Income statement - lower income and higher COGS.
FIFO
(First In, First Out)
Companies match the oldest cost against the revenue and assign it to COGS. When prices are rising, the lowest COGS and highest taxable income. During a period of increasing costs: Balance Sheet - more accurate value (higher) for ending inventory; Income statement - increased net income.
WAC
(Weighted Average Cost)
The average unit cost over the period, calculated by the total cost available for sale by total units available for sale. Used by higher volume and inventory turnover companies. With rising prices: average costs are higher and net income is lower. Results will be between those yielded by FIFO or LIFO.
SI
(Specific Identification)
Tracks individual inventory items. Used for one-of-a-kind, high value, low-volume items such as art or jewelry. The effect on net income depends on items sold and their acquisition costs.

Compare these methods using the Trax sales and purchases of snowboards for January and February:

In January, Trax bought 500 snowboards at $250 each = $125,000.
In February, Trax bought 400 snowboards at $275 each = $110,000.
For the accounting period January-February, Trax had 900 snowboards in stock and sold 200 snowboards.

Main Inventory Costing Methods

Cash Flow AssumptionCost of Available for SaleCost of Goods, Sold (COGS)Ending Inventory
LIFO $275 for first 400, then $250 per snowboard 200 snowboards x $275 = $55,000 (200 snowboards x $275) + (500 snowboards x $250) = $180,000
FIFO $250 for first 500, then $275 per snowboard 200 snowboards x $250 = $50,000 (300 snowboards x $250) + (400 snowboards x $275) = $185,000
WAC $235,000/900 snowboards = $261.11 per snowboard $261.11 x 200 snowboards = $52,222.22 $261.11 x 700 snowboards = $182,777

Accountants would not use the specific identification method in this example because retailers do not track snowboards with unique identification codes. Specific identification would be a good method if the company were selling snowboards that are one-of-a-kind pieces of art or collectibles from famous athletes. In these cases, tracking the physical flow of the goods is easier than in high-volume retail operations. To calculate the ending inventory in the specific identification method, tally the cost of each item in inventory at the end of the period.

The following are three alternate inventory costing methods. GAAP does not approve of these methods, so accountants seldom use them.

Alternative Inventory Costing Methods

Cash Flow AssumptionExplanationWhen UsedEffects on Financial Statement
HIFO
(Highest In, First Out)
The highest cost inventory is the first used or removed from stock. To reduce taxable income or for a rapid increase in sales. Income statement: decreases the taxable income.
LOFO
(Lowest In, First Out)
The lowest cost inventory is the first used or removed from stock. Used rarely in multi-layer inventory companies; inventory expenses are the lowest possible. Income statement: decreases COGS, and increases ending inventory and income.
FEFO
(First Expired, First Out)
Companies ship products with an earlier date of consumption. Industries with expiration dates, such as the food industry. Keeps expired products from affecting financial statements.

Compare the HIFO and LOFO methods using an example of a different snowboard company, Outward Bound, which sells several different models of snowboards, some more expensive models made by craftsmen and others that factories mass-produced. From this company’s accounting software, costs and quantities of the snowboards in stock are:

Extreme All-Mountain, 100 in stock @ $280 each ($28,000).
Apex Freestyle, 50 in stock @ $300 each ($15,000).
Comfort Alpine, 70 in stock @ $700 each ($49,000).
Flex All-Mountain, 50 in stock @ $1200 each ($60,000).
It sold 100 snowboards in the accounting period.

HIFO and LOFO Inventory Costing Methods Compared

Cash Flow AssumptionCost of Available for SaleCost of Goods, Sold (COGS)Ending Inventory
HIFO Sell the flex All-Mountain first, followed by the Comfort Alpine. (50 x $1,200) + (50 x $700) = $95,000 (20 x $700) + (50 x $300) + (100 x $280) = $57,000
LOFO Sell the Extreme All-Mountain first. (100 x $280) = $28,000 (50 x $300) + (70 x $700) + (50 x $1,200) = $124,000

For an example of FEFO, see the Happy Yogurt Company’s books. It had three batches of yogurt with different quantities and expiration dates.

Happy Greek-style, 1000 in stock @ $2.99, expires Jan. 10, 2020.
Happy Strawberry-flavored, 500 in stock @ $2.45, expires Feb. 15, 2020.
Happy Plain-flavored, 500 in stock @ $2.50, expires March 3, 2020.
It sold 1,200 yogurts in the accounting period.

The following are inventory valuation methods not based on cost. GAAP recognizes both as valid methods of valuing inventory.

Inventory Valuation Methods Not Based on Cost

Cash Flow AssumptionExplanationWhen UsedEffects on Financial Statement
LCM
(Lower of Cost or Market)
Record the cost of inventory at whichever cost is lower: original cost or current price at market. When the value of an item is less than its cost, companies adjust inventory downward and record a loss. Balance Sheet - reduces the book value of inventory by the adjustment amount;
Income statement - lowers reported profits.
NTV
(Net Realizable Value)
Estimated selling price minus the cost of sales or disposal. As a calculation for LCM or market value on-hand to prevent a business from carrying forward losses. Income statement - companies recognize a market value loss as an expense, lower profits.
Balance sheet - carrying value of inventory reduced.

Bob’s General Store got on the bandwagon late for a product known as a “fidget spinner.” Therapists originally developed this toy for children with attention disorders, but it became a fad in 2017 with peak sales in June. By the following September, when Bob’s bought 20,000 @ $8.00 each, many school districts had banned them, and their demand plummeted. The market value of a fidget spinner also fell to $5.00 each.

LCM Inventory Valuation Method Example

Cost AssumptionInventory at MarketInventory at CostLCM
LCM $5.00 x 20,000 = $100,000 $8.00 x 20,000 = $160,000 $100,000 (Cost)

Based on this information, Bob’s would report its LCM as the market value to be the cost of inventory for fidget spinners.

Fearing the product demand would continue to go down, in October, Bob’s General Store received a bid to sell the remainder of the fidget spinner stock for $90,000. Bob paid $1,000 to the agent who found the bidder. Bob also recorded $500 in storage costs.

NRV Inventory Valuation Method Example

Cost AssumptionInventory ValueProceeds Realized from DeadstockLoss
NRV $90,000 - ($1,000 + $500) = $88,000 $88,500 $160,000 - $88,500 = $71,500

The net realizable value for Bob’s General Store inventory was $88,500. It also recorded income from the deadstock as $88,500 and a loss of $71,500 for the period.

The following are two methods for estimating ending inventory and thereby the inventory value. As estimates, companies should not expect them to be completely accurate, so they should factor in any loss of stock from damage and theft and supplement them with periodic inventories.

Estimated Cost Inventory Valuation

Cost AssumptionExplanationWhen UsedEffect on Financial Statements
Retail Inventory Method Not using the inventory units; instead, companies calculate as COGS the total retail sales value of goods multiplied by the cost-to-retail ratio. Based on the relationship of the merchandise cost and retails sales price; when retailers resell merchandise to estimate the ending inventory balance of the period. Provides an ending inventory estimate.
Gross Profit Method Not using the inventory units, companies use an estimated average gross profit margin (Sales - Cost of Goods Sold) For retail, resellers who do not have a physical inventory count at the end of a period. Provides an ending inventory estimate.

The Pacific Bead Company sells handcrafted beads from local island crafters to retail markets and customers out of its warehouse. From the company’s accounting software, the following is its reporting period information.

Cost of inventory at the period start: $6,000
Cost of inventory purchased: $4,000
Retail value of inventory at the period start: $12,000
Retail value of inventory purchased: $8,000
Total sales of the year: $7,500
Gross margin for the past 12 months: 50%

NRV Inventory Valuation Method Example

Cost AssumptionInventory ValueProceeds Realized from DeadstockLoss
Retail Inventory Method Available: $6,000 + $4,000 = $10,000.
Retail: $12,000 + $8,000 = $20,000
$7,500 * (1 - $10,000/$20,000) = $3,750 $10,000 - $3,750 = $6,250

A different bead company in the area, Coastal Beads, Inc., calculated its inventory value at the end of a period using the gross profit method. From its accounting software, it reports the following figures.

Cost of box of beads: $7.00
Selling price of box of beads: $17.00
Total Sales: $28,000
Purchases of beads: $4,000
Previous inventory value: $19,000

NRV Inventory Valuation Method Example

Cost AssumptionCost of Goods Available for SaleCost of SalesEnding Inventory
Gross Profit Method $19,000 + $4,000 = $23,000 Expected Gross profit = ($17.00 - $7.00)/$17.00 = 59% $28,000 * (1 - 59%) = $11,480 $23,000 - $11,480 = $11,520

How to Choose an Inventory Cost Accounting Method

To choose a cost accounting method, companies should first understand how the different methods will change their balance sheets and income statements. Regardless of the method the company uses, it is most important to use the same method to present numbers year after year.

This principle of consistency, using the same method period after period, enables companies to present the fairest numbers and pay the appropriate taxes based on their reported income. If they want to change their method, they must get approval from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) via IRS Form 3115 after the end of the tax year. The only requirement when choosing a method is that at the end of the period, the sum of COGS and ending inventory equals the cost of goods available.

Expert Weil shares, “Your accountant can help you decide what method is best for your company. They can make a business recommendation and look at your reconciled data. It is a waste of your money if they are not helping you with tax planning and you only see them annually to file your taxes.”

Each method will have advantages and disadvantages. For example, when a company uses the WAC method with inflation, it would report less COGS than under LIFO but more COGS than if it were using FIFO. Inventory is most up to date under FIFO, as that method uses the most current purchase costs, but understated under LIFO. Under WAC, a company can manipulate its income near the year’s end by how much inventory it buys. Overall though, the averaging process in WAC diminishes the timing effects associated with the purchase of inventory.

Each method will also change slightly based on whether the company uses a periodic or perpetual inventory system. For more information on periodic inventory systems, read “Periodic Inventory: Is It the Right Choice?” Learn more about perpetual inventory systems by reading “The Definitive Guide to Perpetual Inventory.” This change is due to the timing of the calculations performed in the different systems. For example, a WAC method in a perpetual system produces a weighted average system for each sale. Using the WAC method in a periodic system, the company only performs the calculations at the end of a period, taking into account everything that happened and keeping prices more consistent over the period.

Another example is LIFO. There are different ending inventory and COGS for perpetual versus only yearly periodic systems. If companies apply LIFO in a perpetual system, they need to use special adjustments to take advantage of using the LIFO method for tax accounting.

Inventoriable Costs

Inventoriable costs are those that are part of the total cost of a product. These costs include everything necessary to get items into inventory and ready for sale. For example, this can include raw materials, labor, manufacturing overhead, freight-in, certain administrative costs and storage.

Accountants usually record inventoriable costs as assets on the balance sheet. Eventually, the accountants charge them as expenses, and they move them from the balance sheet to the costs of goods sold in the income statement.

The costs accountants consider inventoriable are different in various industries. These inventoriable costs usually fall into three categories of expense: ordering costs, holding costs and administrative costs. Ordering costs are figures that accountants typically allocate to the overhead cost center because they comprise the procurement department’s payroll, benefits and activities such as pre-qualification of suppliers. Holding costs are what companies pay to store goods that they have not sold, and accountants can include them in the overhead cost center.

Administrative costs are expenses often associated with the accounting department, such as wages and benefits. Such personnel produce data on the cost of goods sold and inventory on-hand, respond to auditors and fulfill other accounting analysis requests relating to inventory. There may be administrative costs for these functions spread out through several departments, including purchasing and inventory control, as well as accounting.

Inventory Holding Cost

Inventory holding costs, or carrying costs, are those related to storing unsold inventory. Costs include storage space, handling the stock, the loss to the company if the items become obsolescent or deteriorated and the capital cost relating to unsold inventory.

The cost of the storage space is for the facility that houses the stock and includes depreciation, utility costs, insurance and staff. The cost of handling the stock consists of efforts to put the stock into storage, required maintenance and handling equipment and security. Obsolescence is when stock is no longer useful or becomes outdated. Companies must dispose of this stock at a reduced cost or no cost. The capital costs often have interest fees associated with inventorying of stock prior to sale.

Inventory Carrying Cost Formula

There are different ways to calculate holding costs, such as leveraging a percentage of your inventory value. The best way, however, is for companies to add up their known holding costs and divide the sum by their inventory value, giving them a percentage for future use.

As an exercise, companies should itemize their specific costs. Inventory carrying costs should include:

  • Cost of capital
  • Costs of freight
  • Storage costs
  • Labor costs
  • Cost of insurance and replacement
  • Opportunity costs
  • Any obsolete, dead or stolen stock

Different industries have different standard estimates for this calculation, such as 2% for storage costs and 15% for capital costs. Companies do not include these costs in inventory accounts, but they expense them as they incur them. Consideration of these costs is essential to ensure profit margins are sufficient to cover them.

Inventory Cost Formula

The inventory cost formula is important because it directly affects the company’s profit. This formula uses the beginning inventory value, ending inventory value and purchase costs over the period. Calculate inventory cost by adding the beginning inventory to inventory purchases and subtracting the ending inventory.

For example, the company values inventory at the start of the period at $50,000. It purchases $15,000 over the period. The value of the inventory at the end of the period is $25,000. The inventory cost for that period is ($50,000 + $15,000) - $25,000 = $40,000.

This basic formula takes into account all the inventoriable costs required to get and keep items for sale and bears on income determination. Any adjustment to inventory causes changes in the reported income.

Standard Cost Inventory

Standard costing is when companies assign the expected (or standard) costs of material, labor and overhead to inventory, rather than the actual costs. This management tool helps to plan budgets, manage and control costs and determine how successfully a company controls cost.

Standard cost inventory comes from the company’s historical data and reflects operations under normal circumstances. Companies use these costs targets in planning. A variance is the difference between the standard (target) cost and the actual cost. When negative variances occur, management must take action by identifying the root cause, improving its operations and potentially making changes to the standard cost.

Companies that use standard costing systems usually produce variance reports to show the differences between the standard and actual costs. In the manufacturing environment, the materials price variance is the difference between the budgeted and actual cost for materials. The formula for materials price variance is the following:

Material Price Variance = (Actual Price - Standard Price) x Actual Quantity Purchased

As an example, a manufacturing company of automotive parts budgets $348,500 (standard cost) for 20,500 (standard quantity) of the main material for its popular high-performance oil filters for the year. The standard price per unit is $17.

In the journal entries that report variances, the money accounted for was the money spent, and the performance report showed the actual cost of materials for this part was $389,500 (actual cost) for 20,500 of the raw material (actual quantity). The actual price per unit is $19. The variance—whether a credit or a debit—is to the Materials Price Variance account.

Using the formula, the materials price variance = ($19 - $17) x 20,500 = $41,000.

The journal entry for this formula is as follows:

Material Price Variance

AccountDebitCredit
Raw Material Inventory $348,500
Materials Price Variance $41,000
Accounts Payable $389,5000

Cost of Ending Inventory

The cost of ending inventory is the value of what is leftover in stock and available for sale at the end of a period. The basic calculation for ending inventory is the beginning inventory plus any purchases minus the cost of goods sold.

The cost of ending inventory can change based on the cost flow assumption the company chooses to use. The goods that companies sell first and their relative costs when purchased affect the cost of what is leftover in inventory, as do the assumptions behind any estimates.

Ending Inventory = (Beginning Inventory + Purchases) - COGS

A basic example calculating ending inventory is for Goods, Ltd. This company started its production month with a beginning inventory of $100,000. It purchased $25,000 worth of inventory during the month and sold $75,000 worth of inventory that same month. It calculated the ending inventory as follows:

Ending Inventory = ($100,000 + $25,000) - $75,000 = $50,000

NetSuite Software for Managing Inventory Cost Accounting

Business owners understand the importance of maintaining accurate inventory records and the role these records play in inventory cost accounting. Find the right tool that can streamline accounting processes and provide visibility into inventory on-hand. Companies using accounting software like NetSuite and inventory cost account methods can better understand the health of their businesses, which in turn allows them to better execute their business and marketing strategies.

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Which inventory method is best for rising prices?

Last-in, first-out, or LIFO, uses the most recent costs first. When prices are rising, you prefer LIFO because it gives you the highest cost of goods sold and the lowest taxable income. First-in, first-out, or FIFO, applies the earliest costs first.

When prices are rising over time which of the following inventory costing methods will result in the lowest gross margin profits *?

Weighted average method Was this answer helpful?

What happens to LIFO when prices are rising?

This is why in periods of rising prices, LIFO creates higher costs and lowers net income, which also reduces taxable income. Likewise, in periods of falling prices, LIFO creates lower costs and increases net income, which also increases taxable income.

When prices show a rising trend which one of the following methods of inventory valuation will result in lower income and lower valuation of inventory?

During periods of inflation, the use of LIFO will result in the highest estimate of cost of goods sold among the three approaches, and the lowest net income.