Kế thừa với ví dụ trong python là gì?

Kế thừa là gì?

Các mô hình thừa kế cái được gọi là một mối quan hệ. Điều này có nghĩa là khi bạn có một lớp

# In hr.py

class HourlyEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, hours_worked, hour_rate):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.hours_worked = hours_worked
        self.hour_rate = hour_rate

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.hours_worked * self.hour_rate

# In hr.py

class HourlyEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, hours_worked, hour_rate):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.hours_worked = hours_worked
        self.hour_rate = hour_rate

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.hours_worked * self.hour_rate

# In hr.py

class HourlyEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, hours_worked, hour_rate):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.hours_worked = hours_worked
        self.hour_rate = hour_rate

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.hours_worked * self.hour_rate

# In hr.py

class HourlyEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, hours_worked, hour_rate):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.hours_worked = hours_worked
        self.hour_rate = hour_rate

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.hours_worked * self.hour_rate

Tính kế thừa được biểu diễn bằng Ngôn ngữ mô hình hóa thống nhất hoặc UML theo cách sau

Các lớp được biểu diễn dưới dạng các hộp có tên lớp ở trên cùng. Mối quan hệ thừa kế được biểu diễn bằng mũi tên từ lớp dẫn xuất trỏ đến lớp cơ sở. Từ kéo dài thường được thêm vào mũi tên

Ghi chú. Trong quan hệ thừa kế

• Các lớp kế thừa từ một lớp khác được gọi là lớp dẫn xuất, lớp con hoặc kiểu con
• Các lớp mà các lớp khác được dẫn xuất từ ​​đó được gọi là các lớp cơ sở hoặc siêu lớp
• Một lớp dẫn xuất được cho là kế thừa, kế thừa hoặc mở rộng một lớp cơ sở

Giả sử bạn có một lớp cơ sở

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

Điều này được gọi là nguyên tắc thay thế Liskov. Nguyên tắc nói rằng “trong một chương trình máy tính, nếu

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

Trong bài viết này, bạn sẽ thấy lý do tại sao bạn phải luôn tuân theo nguyên tắc thay thế Liskov khi tạo hệ thống phân cấp lớp của mình và những vấn đề bạn sẽ gặp phải nếu không tuân theo

Thành phần là gì?

Thành phần là một khái niệm mà các mô hình có một mối quan hệ. Nó cho phép tạo các kiểu phức tạp bằng cách kết hợp các đối tượng thuộc các kiểu khác. Điều này có nghĩa là một lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

UML đại diện cho thành phần như sau

Thành phần được thể hiện thông qua một đường có hình thoi tại lớp tổng hợp trỏ đến lớp thành phần. Mặt tổng hợp có thể thể hiện bản chất của mối quan hệ. Bản số cho biết số lượng hoặc phạm vi hợp lệ của các thể hiện

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Trong sơ đồ trên,

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

• Một số cho biết số lượng phiên bản

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  03 có trong

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  02
• Biểu tượng * chỉ ra rằng lớp

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  02 có thể chứa một số lượng biến thể của

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  03
• Một phạm vi 1. 4 chỉ ra rằng lớp

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  02 có thể chứa một loạt các phiên bản

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  03. Phạm vi được chỉ định với số lượng phiên bản tối thiểu và tối đa hoặc tối thiểu và nhiều phiên bản như trong 1. *

Ghi chú. Các lớp chứa các đối tượng của các lớp khác thường được gọi là các lớp tổng hợp, trong đó các lớp được sử dụng để tạo các loại phức tạp hơn được gọi là các thành phần

Ví dụ: lớp

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Thành phần cho phép bạn sử dụng lại mã bằng cách thêm các đối tượng vào các đối tượng khác, thay vì kế thừa giao diện và triển khai của các lớp khác. Cả lớp

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Siêu lớp đối tượng

Cách dễ nhất để xem tính kế thừa trong Python là nhảy vào và viết một chút mã. Bạn sẽ bắt đầu bằng cách viết lớp đơn giản nhất có thể

>>>

>>> class MyClass:
..     pass
...

Bạn đã khai báo một lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>>

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

trả về danh sách tất cả các thành viên trong đối tượng được chỉ định. Bạn chưa khai báo bất kỳ thành viên nào trong

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>>

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Như bạn có thể thấy, hai danh sách gần như giống hệt nhau. Có một số thành viên bổ sung trong lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Điều này là do mọi lớp bạn tạo trong Python đều bắt nguồn hoàn toàn từ

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Ghi chú. Trong Python 2, bạn phải bắt nguồn rõ ràng từ

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Ngoại lệ là một ngoại lệ

Mỗi lớp mà bạn tạo bằng Python sẽ ngầm định xuất phát từ

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bạn có thể thấy sự cố khi sử dụng trình thông dịch tương tác Python

>>>

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Bạn đã tạo một lớp mới để chỉ ra một loại lỗi. Sau đó, bạn đã cố gắng sử dụng nó để đưa ra một ngoại lệ. Một ngoại lệ được đưa ra nhưng đầu ra cho biết rằng ngoại lệ đó thuộc loại

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Cách chính xác để xác định loại lỗi của bạn là như sau

>>>

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError

Như bạn có thể thấy, khi bạn đưa ra

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Tạo phân cấp lớp

Kế thừa là cơ chế bạn sẽ sử dụng để tạo phân cấp của các lớp liên quan. Các lớp liên quan này sẽ chia sẻ một giao diện chung sẽ được định nghĩa trong các lớp cơ sở. Các lớp dẫn xuất có thể chuyên biệt hóa giao diện bằng cách cung cấp một triển khai cụ thể khi áp dụng

Trong phần này, bạn sẽ bắt đầu lập mô hình hệ thống nhân sự. Ví dụ này sẽ chứng minh việc sử dụng tính kế thừa và cách các lớp dẫn xuất có thể cung cấp triển khai cụ thể của giao diện lớp cơ sở

Hệ thống nhân sự cần xử lý bảng lương cho nhân viên của công ty, nhưng có nhiều loại nhân viên khác nhau tùy thuộc vào cách tính lương của họ

Bạn bắt đầu bằng cách triển khai một lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class PayrollSystem:
    def calculate_payroll(self, employees):
        print('Calculating Payroll')
        print('===================')
        for employee in employees:
            print(f'Payroll for: {employee.id} - {employee.name}')
            print(f'- Check amount: {employee.calculate_payroll()}')
            print('')

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bây giờ, bạn triển khai lớp cơ sở

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class Employee:
    def __init__(self, id, name):
        self.id = id
        self.name = name

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Hệ thống nhân sự yêu cầu mọi

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Ví dụ, nhân viên hành chính có mức lương cố định, vì vậy hàng tuần họ được trả số tiền như nhau

# In hr.py

class SalaryEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.weekly_salary = weekly_salary

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.weekly_salary

Bạn tạo một lớp dẫn xuất

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Lớp cung cấp phương pháp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Công ty cũng sử dụng công nhân sản xuất được trả lương theo giờ, vì vậy bạn thêm một số

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class HourlyEmployee(Employee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, hours_worked, hour_rate):
        super().__init__(id, name)
        self.hours_worked = hours_worked
        self.hour_rate = hour_rate

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        return self.hours_worked * self.hour_rate

Lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Cuối cùng, công ty tuyển dụng các cộng tác viên bán hàng được trả lương cố định cộng với hoa hồng dựa trên doanh số bán hàng của họ, vì vậy bạn tạo một lớp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class CommissionEmployee(SalaryEmployee):
    def __init__(self, id, name, weekly_salary, commission):
        super().__init__(id, name, weekly_salary)
        self.commission = commission

    def calculate_payroll(self):
        fixed = super().calculate_payroll()
        return fixed + self.commission

Bạn lấy được

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Since

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The problem with accessing the property directly is that if the implementation of

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

You created your first class hierarchy for the system. The UML diagram of the classes looks like this

The diagram shows the inheritance hierarchy of the classes. The derived classes implement the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Interfaces are represented similarly to classes with the word interface above the interface name. Interface names are usually prefixed with a capital

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The application creates its employees and passes them to the payroll system to process payroll

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

You can run the program in the command line and see the results

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The program creates three employee objects, one for each of the derived classes. Then, it creates the payroll system and passes a list of the employees to its

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Notice how the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>>

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

While you can instantiate an

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Abstract Base Classes in Python

The

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

You can use leading underscores in your class name to communicate that objects of that class should not be created. Underscores provide a friendly way to prevent misuse of your code, but they don’t prevent eager users from creating instances of that class

The in the Python standard library provides functionality to prevent creating objects from abstract base classes

You can modify the implementation of the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

You derive

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

This change has two nice side-effects

1. You’re telling users of the module that objects of type

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   51 can’t be created
2. You’re telling other developers working on the

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   21 module that if they derive from

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   51, then they must override the

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   47 abstract method

You can see that objects of type

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>>

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The output shows that the class cannot be instantiated because it contains an abstract method

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Implementation Inheritance vs Interface Inheritance

When you derive one class from another, the derived class inherits both

1. Giao diện lớp cơ sở. The derived class inherits all the methods, properties, and attributes of the base class

2. The base class implementation. The derived class inherits the code that implements the class interface

Most of the time, you’ll want to inherit the implementation of a class, but you will want to implement multiple interfaces, so your objects can be used in different situations

Modern programming languages are designed with this basic concept in mind. They allow you to inherit from a single class, but you can implement multiple interfaces

In Python, you don’t have to explicitly declare an interface. Any object that implements the desired interface can be used in place of another object. This is known as . Duck typing is usually explained as “if it behaves like a duck, then it’s a duck. ”

To illustrate this, you will now add a

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

• An

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  48 property or attribute that returns the employee’s id
• A

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  49 property or attribute that represents the employee’s name
• A

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  47 method that doesn’t take any parameters and returns the payroll amount to process

All these requirements are met by the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

You can modify the program to use the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The program creates a

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

As you can see, the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Since you don’t have to derive from a specific class for your objects to be reusable by the program, you may be asking why you should use inheritance instead of just implementing the desired interface. The following rules may help you

• Use inheritance to reuse an implementation. Your derived classes should leverage most of their base class implementation. They must also model an is a relationship. A

  >>> o = object()
  >>> dir(o)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
  '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
  '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
  '__subclasshook__']
  

  41 class might also have an

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  48 and a

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  49, but a

  >>> o = object()
  >>> dir(o)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
  '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
  '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
  '__subclasshook__']
  

  41 is not an

  >>> c = MyClass()
  >>> dir(c)
  ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
  '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
  '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
  '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
  '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
  

  51, so you should not use inheritance

• Implement an interface to be reused. When you want your class to be reused by a specific part of your application, you implement the required interface in your class, but you don’t need to provide a base class, or inherit from another class

You can now clean up the example above to move onto the next topic. You can delete the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

You removed the import of the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Basically, you are inheriting the implementation of the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Notice how the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

The Class Explosion Problem

If you are not careful, inheritance can lead you to a huge hierarchical structure of classes that is hard to understand and maintain. Đây được gọi là vấn đề bùng nổ lớp

Bạn đã bắt đầu xây dựng hệ thống phân cấp lớp gồm

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

• quản lý. Họ đi xung quanh và la mắng mọi người bảo họ phải làm gì. Họ là những người làm công ăn lương và kiếm được nhiều tiền hơn
• thư ký. Họ làm tất cả các công việc giấy tờ cho người quản lý và đảm bảo rằng mọi thứ được lập hóa đơn và thanh toán đúng hạn. Họ cũng là người làm công ăn lương nhưng kiếm được ít tiền hơn
• nhân viên kinh doanh. Họ thực hiện rất nhiều cuộc điện thoại để bán sản phẩm. They have a salary, but they also get commissions for sales
• Công nhân nhà máy. Họ sản xuất các sản phẩm cho công ty. They are paid by the hour

With those requirements, you start to see that

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

You create an

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

The implementation remains the same, but you move the classes to the

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

You run the program and verify that it still works

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

With everything in place, you start adding the new classes

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

First, you add a

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Then you add

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Now, you can add the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

The class tracks employees in the

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

The program creates a list of employees of different types. The employee list is sent to the productivity system to track their work for 40 hours. Then the same list of employees is sent to the payroll system to calculate their payroll

You can run the program to see the output

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

The program shows the employees working for 40 hours through the productivity system. Then it calculates and displays the payroll for each of the employees

The program works as expected, but you had to add four new classes to support the changes. As new requirements come, your class hierarchy will inevitably grow, leading to the class explosion problem where your hierarchies will become so big that they’ll be hard to understand and maintain

The following diagram shows the new class hierarchy

The diagram shows how the class hierarchy is growing. Additional requirements might have an exponential effect in the number of classes with this design

Inheriting Multiple Classes

Python is one of the few modern programming languages that supports multiple inheritance. Multiple inheritance is the ability to derive a class from multiple base classes at the same time

Multiple inheritance has a bad reputation to the extent that most modern programming languages don’t support it. Instead, modern programming languages support the concept of interfaces. In those languages, you inherit from a single base class and then implement multiple interfaces, so your class can be re-used in different situations

This approach puts some constraints in your designs. You can only inherit the implementation of one class by directly deriving from it. You can implement multiple interfaces, but you can’t inherit the implementation of multiple classes

This constraint is good for software design because it forces you to design your classes with fewer dependencies on each other. You will see later in this article that you can leverage multiple implementations through composition, which makes software more flexible. This section, however, is about multiple inheritance, so let’s take a look at how it works

It turns out that sometimes temporary secretaries are hired when there is too much paperwork to do. The

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bạn nhìn vào thiết kế lớp học của bạn. It has grown a little bit, but you can still understand how it works. It seems you have two options

1. Derive from

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   76. Bạn có thể bắt nguồn từ

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   76 để kế thừa phương thức

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   88 cho vai trò, sau đó ghi đè phương thức

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   47 để triển khai nó dưới dạng

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   70

2. Xuất phát từ

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   70. Bạn có thể bắt nguồn từ

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   70 để kế thừa phương thức

   >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   47, sau đó ghi đè phương thức

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   88 để triển khai nó dưới dạng

   >>> o = object()
   >>> dir(o)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
   '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
   '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
   '__subclasshook__']
   

   76

Sau đó, bạn nhớ rằng Python hỗ trợ đa kế thừa, vì vậy bạn quyết định xuất phát từ cả

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Python cho phép bạn kế thừa từ hai lớp khác nhau bằng cách chỉ định chúng giữa dấu ngoặc đơn trong khai báo lớp

Bây giờ, bạn sửa đổi chương trình của mình để thêm nhân viên thư ký tạm thời mới

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bạn chạy chương trình để kiểm tra

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bạn nhận được một ngoại lệ nói rằng

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Điều này là do bạn bắt nguồn từ

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Được rồi, hãy đảo ngược nó

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bây giờ, hãy chạy lại chương trình và xem điều gì sẽ xảy ra

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Bây giờ có vẻ như bạn đang thiếu một tham số

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Có thể thực hiện

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Thử nó

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Điều đó cũng không hiệu quả. Được rồi, đã đến lúc bạn đi sâu vào trình tự giải quyết phương pháp Python (MRO) để xem điều gì đang xảy ra

Khi một phương thức hoặc thuộc tính của một lớp được truy cập, Python sử dụng lớp MRO để tìm nó. MRO cũng được sử dụng bởi

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bạn có thể đánh giá MRO của lớp

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>>

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

MRO hiển thị thứ tự mà Python sẽ tìm kiếm một thuộc tính hoặc phương thức phù hợp. Trong ví dụ này, đây là điều xảy ra khi chúng ta tạo đối tượng

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

1. Phương pháp

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   14 được gọi là

2. Cuộc gọi

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   15 phù hợp với

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   16

3. >>> c = MyClass()
   >>> dir(c)
   ['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
   '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
   '__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
   '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
   '__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']
   

   70 cuộc gọi

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   18, mà MRO sẽ khớp với

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   04, được kế thừa từ

   >>> class MyError:
   ..     pass
   ...
   >>> raise MyError()
   
   Traceback (most recent call last):
     File "", line 1, in 
   TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException
   

   20

Bởi vì các tham số không khớp, một ngoại lệ

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bạn có thể bỏ qua MRO bằng cách đảo ngược thứ tự thừa kế và gọi trực tiếp

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Điều đó giải quyết vấn đề tạo đối tượng, nhưng bạn sẽ gặp phải vấn đề tương tự khi cố tính bảng lương. Bạn có thể chạy chương trình để xem vấn đề

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Vấn đề bây giờ là vì bạn đã đảo ngược thứ tự thừa kế, MRO đang tìm phương pháp

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Phương thức

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Chương trình hiện hoạt động như mong đợi vì bạn đang buộc thứ tự giải quyết phương thức bằng cách thông báo rõ ràng cho trình thông dịch biết phương pháp nào chúng tôi muốn sử dụng

Như bạn có thể thấy, đa thừa kế có thể gây nhầm lẫn, đặc biệt là khi bạn gặp phải

Sơ đồ sau đây cho thấy vấn đề kim cương trong hệ thống phân cấp lớp học của bạn

Sơ đồ cho thấy vấn đề kim cương với thiết kế lớp hiện tại.

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Vấn đề kim cương xuất hiện khi bạn đang sử dụng nhiều kế thừa và xuất phát từ hai lớp có lớp cơ sở chung. Điều này có thể gây ra phiên bản sai của một phương thức được gọi

Như bạn đã thấy, Python cung cấp một cách để buộc gọi đúng phương thức và việc phân tích MRO có thể giúp bạn hiểu vấn đề

Tuy nhiên, khi bạn gặp vấn đề về kim cương, tốt hơn hết là bạn nên suy nghĩ lại về thiết kế. Bây giờ bạn sẽ thực hiện một số thay đổi để tận dụng đa kế thừa, tránh vấn đề kim cương

Các lớp dẫn xuất

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

1. Hệ thống năng suất theo dõi năng suất của nhân viên

2. The payroll system that calculates the employee payroll

Điều này có nghĩa là mọi thứ liên quan đến năng suất phải được đặt cùng nhau trong một mô-đun và mọi thứ liên quan đến bảng lương phải được đặt cùng nhau trong một mô-đun khác. Bạn có thể bắt đầu thực hiện các thay đổi đối với mô-đun năng suất

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Mô-đun

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bạn có thể làm tương tự với mô-đun

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Mô-đun

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Bây giờ bạn có thể thêm các lớp cần thiết vào mô-đun

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError

Mô-đun

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

Lưu ý rằng bạn vẫn cần khởi tạo rõ ràng các chính sách tiền lương trong hàm tạo. Bạn có thể thấy rằng phần khởi tạo của

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bạn sẽ không muốn có kiểu sao chép mã này trong các thiết kế phức tạp hơn, vì vậy bạn phải cẩn thận khi thiết kế hệ thống phân cấp lớp

Đây là sơ đồ UML cho thiết kế mới

Sơ đồ hiển thị các mối quan hệ để xác định

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bạn có thể chạy chương trình và xem nó hoạt động như thế nào

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError

Bạn đã thấy cách hoạt động của thừa kế và đa thừa kế trong Python. Bây giờ bạn có thể khám phá chủ đề sáng tác

Thiết kế linh hoạt với bố cục

Thành phần linh hoạt hơn thừa kế vì nó mô hình hóa mối quan hệ kết hợp lỏng lẻo. Các thay đổi đối với một lớp thành phần có ảnh hưởng tối thiểu hoặc không ảnh hưởng đến lớp tổng hợp. Thiết kế dựa trên thành phần phù hợp hơn để thay đổi

Bạn thay đổi hành vi bằng cách cung cấp các thành phần mới triển khai các hành vi đó thay vì thêm các lớp mới vào hệ thống phân cấp của bạn

Hãy xem ví dụ đa thừa kế ở trên. Hãy tưởng tượng chính sách tiền lương mới sẽ ảnh hưởng đến thiết kế như thế nào. Cố gắng hình dung hệ thống phân cấp lớp sẽ như thế nào nếu cần có vai trò mới. Như bạn đã thấy trước đây, việc phụ thuộc quá nhiều vào tính kế thừa có thể dẫn đến bùng nổ giai cấp

Vấn đề lớn nhất không phải là số lượng các lớp trong thiết kế của bạn nhiều như thế nào, mà là mối quan hệ giữa các lớp đó chặt chẽ đến mức nào. Các lớp liên kết chặt chẽ ảnh hưởng lẫn nhau khi các thay đổi được đưa ra

Trong phần này, bạn sẽ sử dụng bố cục để thực hiện một thiết kế tốt hơn mà vẫn phù hợp với các yêu cầu của

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Bạn có thể bắt đầu bằng cách triển khai chức năng của

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError

Lớp

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Nó cũng hiển thị chức năng trước đó trong phương pháp

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

Bây giờ bạn có thể triển khai các lớp vai trò khác nhau

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError

Mỗi vai trò mà bạn đã triển khai đều cho thấy một

>>> class MyError:
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
TypeError: exceptions must derive from BaseException

>>> o = object()
>>> dir(o)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__',
'__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__',
'__subclasshook__']

Các lớp vai trò độc lập với nhau, nhưng chúng hiển thị cùng một giao diện, vì vậy chúng có thể hoán đổi cho nhau. Sau này bạn sẽ thấy chúng được sử dụng như thế nào trong ứng dụng

Bây giờ, bạn có thể triển khai

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

# In hr.py

class PayrollSystem:
    def calculate_payroll(self, employees):
        print('Calculating Payroll')
        print('===================')
        for employee in employees:
            print(f'Payroll for: {employee.id} - {employee.name}')
            print(f'- Check amount: {employee.calculate_payroll()}')
            print('')

>>> c = MyClass()
>>> dir(c)
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dict__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__',
'__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__',
'__init_subclass__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__module__', '__ne__', '__new__',
'__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__', '__weakref__']

>>> class MyError(Exception):
..     pass
...
>>> raise MyError()

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "", line 1, in 
__main__.MyError