According to Erik Erikson, the main task of adolescents is to solve the crisis of identity versus role confusion. Research has shown that a stable and strong sense of identity is associated with better mental health of adolescents. Good relationships with peers are also linked with better emotional and psychological well-being of adolescents. However, there is a lack of reviews of studies in the scientific literature examining the relationship between the adolescents’ identity development and relationships with peers. The aims of this article were to analyze links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers identified from a literature review, summarize the results, and discuss the theoretical factors that may predict these relationships.
Method:
A systematic literature review.
Results:
Analysis of findings from the systematic literature review revealed that a good relationship with peers is positively related to adolescent identity development, but empirical research in this area is extremely limited.
Conclusions:
The links between adolescents’ identity development and their relationship with peers are not completely clear. The possible intermediate factors that could determine the relationship between adolescent identity development and their relationships with peers are discussed. Further empirical researches is needed in this area.
Keywords: identity, adolescence, relationships with peers
Résumé
Objectif:
Selon Erik Erikson, la principale tâche des adolescents consiste à résoudre la crise d’identité versus la confusion des rôles. La recherche a démontré qu’un sentiment d’identité fort et stable est associé à une meilleure santé mentale des adolescents. De bonnes relations avec les pairs sont également liées à un plus grand bien-être émotionnel et psychologique des adolescents. Toutefois, il y a un manque de revues d’études dans la littérature scientifique qui examine la relation entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et les relations avec les pairs. Cet article visait à analyser les liens entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et les relations avec les pairs identifiés dans une revue de la littérature, à résumer les résultats, et à discuter des facteurs théoriques qui peuvent prédire ces relations.
Méthode:
Une revue systématique de la littérature.
Résultats:
L’analyse des résultats de la revue systématique de la littérature a révélé qu’une bonne relation avec les pairs est positivement reliée au développement de l’identité de l’adolescent, mais que la recherche empirique dans ce domaine est extrêmement limitée.
Conclusions:
Les liens entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et leurs relations avec les pairs ne sont pas complètement définis. Les facteurs intermédiaires possibles qui pourraient déterminer la relation entre le développement de l’identité des adolescents et leurs relations avec les pairs sont présentés. Il faut plus de recherches empiriques dans ce domaine.
Mots-clés : identité, adolescence, relations avec les pairs
Introduction
According to , the main and most important developmental tasks for adolescents are to solve the identity versus role confusion crisis, construct their own unique sense of identity, and find the social environment where they can belong to and create meaningful relationships with other people []. Various theories exist that try to define the concept of identity. For example, Waterman [1993; as cited in ] believed that identity reflects a person’s best potential which is self-realizing. Identity is expressed through self-realizing activities which person feels as self-defining or fitting, engaging, energizing, purposeful, and helpful in fulfilling his/her goals of life. According to Berzonsky’s social-cognitive theory of identity styles [1988; as cited in ], identity is the cognitive model of how persons process and examines identity relevant information. Others propose that identity in general is nothing other than the answer to the question: “who am I?” []. Identity theory developed by Stryker [1968; as cited in ] focuses on the individual’s integration of societal expectations regarding the meaning of occupying particular social positions or statuses [for example, parent, spouse, employee] and the behavioural expectations associated with such statuses. The most general and broad concept of identity is proposed by . He described identity as a fundamental organizing principal which develops constantly throughout the lifespan. Identity provides a sense of continuity within the self and in interaction with others [“self-sameness”], as well as a frame to differentiate between self and others [“uniqueness”] which allows the individual to function autonomously from others []. Moreover, Erikson’s concept of identity was particularly focused on adolescents’ development. For these reasons identity definition based on Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was used in this study.
Both, the high-quality and satisfying relationships with other people [] and the formed sense of identity [] are associated with better adolescent’ mental health and psychological well-being. A positively solved identity vs. role confusion crisis enables a person to integrate self-perception images into a stable personal identity, as well as strengthen performance of different roles and assumed commitments []. Achieved identity is associated with a lower expression of psychosomatic and neurotic symptoms [], and reduced anxiety [], depression and suicidal tendencies []. Achieved identity is also related to psychological well-being [], emotional adjustment [], and greater emotional stability [].
Similarly, relationships with peers are also associated with better mental health of adolescents and his/her successful adaptation to the environment [; ]. Although relationships with parents are still relevant for adolescents [], relationships with peers become the centre of adolescents’ life []. Research has shown that belonging to the “normal” - or - popular peer group is positively associated with better adolescent adaptation to the environment []. Research has shown that peer group acceptance and good relationships work as protecting factors against social anxiety and depression []. It is also related with less internal and external problems regardless of adolescent’ sex, age and family structure characteristics []. If adolescents are unable to resist peer pressure and negative influences, they may be more prone to delinquent behaviour or use of psychoactive substances. This may be so as, adolescents may seek to conform to behavioural norms of the peer group with, which they identify themselves with []. Identification with a delinquent peer group is a predictor of physical and relationship aggression []. Aggression experienced in adolescents’ romantic relationships, peer pressure, and peer rejection are associated with increased symptoms of depression, alcohol use, psychosocial functioning problems [], internal distress and social anxiety [].
In adolescence, a self-comparison with peers becomes more important when adolescents try to associate their identities with their peers []. Members of the peer group can model their behaviour according to group norms’, therefore peer groups can have significant impact on adolescents’ development []. A peer group not only provides emotional support for adolescents, but also provides a social status necessary for his/her identity development []. However, it is not clear what psychosocial factors may link adolescent identity development and relationship with peers.
Research has shown that adolescents’ identity development is related to their relationship with peers. According to ], good and supporting relationship with peers is positively related to adolescent identity development because it can help prevent stagnation in the process of identity exploration. Attachment to peers and belonging to peer groups, as well as the support one get from romantic relationships and good relationships with friends, are also positively related to adolescent identity development [; ; ; ]. However, appears that only a few studies examining the links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers has been published in the peer-reviewed literature. Studies that have been published appear to show that high-quality relationships with peers are positively related to adolescent identity development. However, the dimensions of relationships with peers discussed in these studies substantially vary, ranging from intimate romantic relationships to membership within wider social peer groups. In addition, these studies are mainly based on correlation analysis, which cannot determine causal relationships between the variables, and also do not address what other factors could predict the links of adolescent identity development and relationships with peers. In order to summarize the research about adolescent identity development in the context of relationship with peers, a systematic literature review was conducted. The main tasks of this literature review were to: summarize results of adolescents’ identity development and relationships with peers; and, discuss the theoretical factors that could predict the links of adolescent identity development and relationships with peers.
Methodology
Inclusion criteria for the systematic literature review
Only empirical studies which examined:
adolescent’ identity development according to Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development; and,
various aspects of adolescents’ relationships with peers were included in the systematic literature review. In addition, studies were only included if the participants were non-clinical samples.
Excluded were studies that only presented theoretical content and studies that only examined gender, racial or ethnic identity because gender, racial and ethnic identity are more reflective of different types of identity, rather than identity itself. Other inclusion criteria were studies’ availability, quality, language and year of publication: only freely available, peer-reviewed, full-text articles in English, which were published between 1985 and 2014, were included. The following databases were searched: Medline, Social Psychology Network, Google Scholar and EBSCO. The following combinations of key words were used: identity, development, adolescent *, relationship *, peer *, friend *. In total 53 articles were found: 16 – in Medline, 0 –in Social Psychology Network, 16 – in Google Scholar and 26 – in EBSCO. All articles were screened according to titles, abstracts and used methodologies. Articles, which did not match inclusion criteria, were not included into systematic review.
Assessment of study quality and data extraction
The quality of the studies was assessed according to the following criteria to determine which of the 53 studies to retain for analysis:
Adolescent’s identity development was analyzed in accordance with Erikson psychosocial development theory;
Information about the participants of the study was provided;
Participants were non-clinical samples;
Research concepts were clearly defined;
Reliability coefficients of used instruments were given;
Organization and implementation of the research were described;
Obtained results and findings of the study were clearly described.
In total seven of the 53 studies identified in the systematic literature review met the quality criteria: four – from EBSCO database and three – from Google’s Scholar search engine. The data about participants’ age and reliability of used instruments were extracted. The data from the analysis of the links between adolescent’ relationships with peers and identity development were also extracted. Different methods of assessment of identity development and relationships with peers were used across the included studies, therefore meta-analytic calculations were not performed.
Results
In total seven articles identified through the systematic literature review met the inclusion and quality criteria. The main characteristics of these studies are presented in Table 1. There were different methodologies used in assessing adolescent identity development and relationships with peers in the included studies. Adolescents’ relationships with peers were most frequently analyzed by measuring attachment to peers [4 of 7, #2, #4, #6, #7]. Other relationships considered in one study each included: orientation to peer group [#1], having a romantic relationship [#3], conformist behaviour [#5], and adjustment to peers [#5]. Reliability coefficients of the measures used in the various studies met a proposed threshold indicating suitability for use in psychological research for group comparisons [i.e., Cronbach α> 0.5] [].
Table 1.
Characteristics of the population and measures used in the studies identified in the systematic literature review
Authors, year of publicationSample sizeAge of participantsMeasures used [reliability coefficient Cronbach’s alpha]1. N = 497 [gender distribution were approximately equal]Students in grades 10–12Orientation to peer group questionnaire: orientation to the peer group formal [α=0.75, 0.73] and informal [α=0.59, 0.61] reward system scales1; Erikson psychosocial development inventory [EPSI]2 [α=0.79, 0.75]2. N = 550 [300 boys, 250 girls]17–25 yearsAttachment to parents and peers questionnaire [IPPA-R]3 [α=0.93]; Questionnaire of Ego identity statuses extended version [EOM-EIS-2]4 [α=0.92].3. Sample 1: N = 485 [422 girls, 63 boys];
Sample 2: N = 390 [222 girls, 168 boys].Sample 1: Mean = 18.6 years [SD = 0.57];
Sample 2: Mean = 16.7 years [SD = 0.80].NEO five questionnaire [NEO-FFI]5 [α=0.87 – 0.89];
Quick Big Five Questionnaire6 [α=0.76 – 0.92];
Utrecht-Groningen Scale of Identity Development7 [α=0.5 – 0.9];
Utrecht-scale of Management of Identity Commitment [U-MICS]8 [α=0.62 – 0.94]; sociodemographic issues about aspects of romantic relationships in pair.4. N = 429 [200 girls, 229 boys]14–18 years, Mean = 16.3 years [SD = 1.15]Dimension of Identity development scale [DIDS]9 [α=0.82 – 0.94];
Attachment to parents and peers questionnaire [IPPA]3 [α=0.81 – 0.83]5. N = 80 [40 girls, 40 boys]18–25 years Mean = 20.4Ego identity status questionnaire [EOM-EIS]10 [α=0.71 – 0.93];
Attentiveness and questionnaire of communication style [IN]11 [α=0.59 – 0.71]
Asch conformist behaviour experiment tasks126. N = 148 [72 girls, 76 boys]Mean = 15 years [SD = 2.05]Attachment to parents and peers questionnaire [IPPA]3 [α=0.67 – 0.81];
Utrecht-Groningen Identity Development Scale7 [α=0.76 – 0.87].7. N = 343 [274 girls, 79 boys]Mean = 18 years [SD = 1.62]Identity Style Questionnaire [ISI-4]13 [α=0.67 – 0.79];
Attachment anxiety and avoidance of intimate relationships scale short version [ECR]14 [α=0.62 – 0.76];
Friendship Quality Scale [FQS]15 [α=0.83];
[Loneliness trait scale [STLS]16 [α=0.82].
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1
2Rosenthal et al., 1981
3Armsden & Greenberg, 1987
4Bennion & Adams, 1986
5Hoekstra et al. 1996
6Goldberg, 1992; Vermulst, Gerry 2005
7Meeus 1996; Meeus & Dekovic, 1995
8
9Luyckx et al., 2011
10Adams, Shea & Fitch, 1979
11Nideffer, 1976
12Asch, 1956
13Luyckx, Lens, et al., 2010; Smits et. al., 2009];
14Wei et. al., 2007
15Bukowski et. al., 1994
16Gerson & Perlman, 1979
17Positive activities [working on school publications, extracurricular reading, participation in the arts, studying hard] usually formally awarded in school.
18Social activities [partying, getting into trouble, watching sport] valuable between adolescents groups
Findings from the included studies are summarized in Table 2. In the majority of studies [6 of 7, #1–4, #6–7] statistically significant links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers were found. Achieved sense of identity is positively associated with attachment to peers [#2, #4, #6, #7], adolescents’ orientation to the formal peer groups’ achievements [#1], stability and robustness in romantic relationships [#3], better relationships with peers, and reduced sense of loneliness [#7]. In contrast, mixed findings were found in one study. More specifically, [#5] found achievement of identity is associated with better interpersonal characteristics [attentiveness to social information, capability of addressing numerous ideas and thoughts, being less controlling and expressing less negative emotions in the context of interpersonal relationships] while conformist behaviour with peers is not predicted by identity statuses.
Table 2.
Summary of links between adolescent identity development and relationships with peers from studies identified in the systematic literature review
Authors, year of publicationAnalyzed aspects of relationships with peersMethods of data analysisResults [statistical significance]Comments1. Adolescents’ orientation to peer group, adolescents’ perceptions of which group they would be assigned to by their peers [formal achievement in school, participation in extra activities, participation in parties and sports, activities outside the school].Multiple regression analysisOrientation to formal award activities peer group is positively related with faster development of ego identity**;
Orientation to informal peer group is positively associated with better ability to imagine themselves in the future*2. Attachment to peers, quality of friendship with peers.Correlation analysisAttachment to peers is positively associated with identity development.* The correlation coefficient of identity development and attachment to peers is higher than the coefficient of identity development and attachment to parents.Attachment to parents and friends explain only 4% of the variance. Correlation is stronger for girls.3. Strength and stability of adolescents’ romantic relationshipsMultiple regression analysisAdolescents less committed to their identity are more likely to experience broke up in their romantic relationships**.Identity strength is more important for stability of romantic relationships than personality traits.4. Attachment to peers, quality of friendship with peers.Correlation analysisThe quality of relationships with peers and affection towards them is positively related to identity integration and identity commitments*.5. Conformist behavior when feeling peer group pressure, links of personality traits and communication style in interpersonal relations.Correlation analysisIn young men sample identity achieved and foreclosure statuses were related to more accurate information processing, lower expression of negative feelings to others, and lower obsessiveness in interpersonal relationships*. In girl sample identity achievement and foreclosure statuses were related to higher external attentional focus, more accurate information processing, and lower need to control their interpersonal relationships*. Conformist behaviour is not related to any of the identity statuses.Contradictory results.6. Attachment to peers, strength and quality of relationship with peers/friends.Multiple regression analysisAttachment to peers is positively related with commitment to relationships*** and identity exploration status**. Commitment to identity is positively related with parent and peer trust in relationships***.7. Quality of relationships with peers, loneliness, attachment to peers.Structural equation modelingIntegrated identity is positively related with better relationship with peers*** and negatively with a feeling of loneliness* and avoidant attachment style***. Identity diffusion is positively related to anxious and avoidant attachment styles*** and feeling of loneliness**. Anxious and avoidant attachment mediates the relationship between identity and the quality of relationship with peers.
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*p