Who first used the term neuropsychology?

The Neuropsychology Is the scientific study of the relationship between brain function and behavior. Your mission is to understand How the brain works Influences mental processes and behavior.

This discipline is responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of the cognitive and behavioral consequences of various neurological disorders. Thus, it groups aspects of neurology and psychology.

The main discoveries have been obtained through studies of injuries, observing what behaviors the subject stopped doing after damage in a certain area of ​​the brain . These studies come from both humans and animals.

Neuropsychology takes from psychology the interest in the study of the cognitive, behavioral and emotional dimension of the human being. While it extracts from neurosciences its theoretical framework, knowledge about the structure and functioning of the nervous system, as well as possible pathologies or abnormalities of the nervous system.

It is an interdisciplinary science, because part of knowledge that comes from the psychology, anatomy, biology, physiology, psychiatry, pharmacology, etc.

Neuropsychology focuses on the higher cognitive processes of the Cerebral cortex . For example: attention, memory , Language, visuospatial functions, etc.

How did neuropsychology come about?

Neuropsychology is a modern science that developed from the mid-twentieth century. The term"Neuropsychology"was first collected in dictionaries in 1893. It was defined as a discipline that seeks to integrate psychological observations of behavior with neurological observations of the nervous system.

Even so, the term neuropsychology was used in moderation. It began to spread in 1930 when Hebb He used it in his book "The determinants of behavior. A neuropsychological analysis."

But the term became more strongly consolidated when Hans L. Teuber presented his work "Neuropsychology" In the Congress of the American Psychological Association (APA) on diagnostics and psychological tests in 1948.

Between 1950 and 1965 human neuropsychology acquired a great development. He became firm with the appearance of two specialized international journals: Neuropsychology "Founded in France in 1963 by Henry Hecaen, and" Cortex "Founded by Ennio de Renzi in 1964 in Italy.

Various societies were created as The International Neuropsychological Society (INS) And the Division of Neuropsychology of the APA in the United States.

According to Ardila and Rosselli (2007) we can divide the history of neuropsychology in four periods:

Preclassic period until 1861

This period begins with early references of cognitive alterations linked to brain damage observed in Egypt around the year 3500 BC. Finishing with the influential theories of Franz Gall , The father of phrenology.

This author argued that the human brain has divisions that accommodate different intellectual and moral qualities. The shape of the skull, head and face were considered indicators of personality, intelligence or criminal tendencies.

This is one of the most important attempts to link behavior with the characteristics of the nervous system.

Classic period (1861-1945)

In 1861 a primitive skull appeared at the Anthropological Society of Paris. It was argued that there was a direct relationship between intellectual capacity and brain volume.

In that same year the famous patient"Tan"studied by Paul Broca . This scientist, on the postmortem examination, showed that a lesion in the posterior frontal area could affect the ability to speak. Broca drew the attention of his colleagues by pointing out that only the left hemisphere Was altered when language was lost.

In this period, another fundamental advance occurred: the publication of the doctoral thesis of Karl Wernicke In 1874. This author proposed the existence of an area of ​​the brain that helped us to understand language. In addition, he noted that he was The Broca area .

If these zones were damaged or connections were interrupted, different language problems could arise aphasia . Wernicke also defined several types of aphasia that can be separated clinically according to the location of brain injury.

The work of Wernicke led to the emergence of a series of schemes and classifications for the different neuropsychological syndromes. The so-called"localizacionistas"affirmed that there were specific zones of the brain that were related to certain psychological activities.

This made a"writing center", a"language center", a"glossosoquintic center", etc. proposed. Numerous authors followed this approach; Such as Lichtheim, Charcot, Bastian, Kleist or Nielson.

Modern period (1945-1975)

This period begins after the Second World War. Due to the large number of patients injured in war with brain injuries, more professionals were needed to perform diagnostic and rehabilitation procedures.

At this stage, appeared the book of A. R. Luria," Traumatic aphasia ", Published in 1947. In it he proposed several theories about the cerebral organization of language and its pathologies, based on observations obtained from patients injured in the war.

Luria adopted an intermediate perspective between the locacionismo and the antilocalizacionismo. According to Luria, psychological processes such as attention or memory , Are complex functional systems that need several different links for their normal realization.

Luria did not think that a particular part of the brain was responsible for a specific function. Rather, it considered that there was a simultaneous participation of several areas of Cerebral cortex For the same function.

What happens is that each area specializes in a way of processing information. However, this processing may occur in several functional systems.

On the other hand, it is possible to emphasize the works of Geschwind. He proposed an explanation for cortical syndromes based on anomalies in the transmission of information between different centers of the cerebral cortex.

In this period the development of research in several countries is also fundamental. In France, he emphasizes the work of Henri Hécaen, while in Germany Poeck makes contributions on aphasia and Apraxia .

In Italy, they also focus on aphasic disorders De Renzi, Vignolo and Gainitti, as well as spatial and constructional skills.

In 1958 the Institute of Neurology of Montevideo was created. In England, studies by Weigl, Warrington and Newcombe on language problems and perceptual disturbances are important.

In Spain, a working group specialized in neuropsychology is created by Barraquer-Bordas. While in all European countries they create working groups around neuropsychology, establishing themselves as a scientific and functional area.

Contemporary period (since 1975)

This period is marked by the emergence of brain images such as computed tomography (CT), which was a revolution in the neurosciences.

This has allowed more precise clinical-anatomical correlations to be obtained and that many concepts are redefined and clarified. With advances, it has been possible to verify that there are other areas that are not"classic"in neuropsychology and that participate in cognitive processes .

In the 1990s, research progresses with images that are not anatomical but functional.

For example, those obtained through Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). These techniques allow observing brain activity during cognitive activities such as speaking, reading, thinking in words, etc.

Standardized instruments of evaluation are also included, with the aim of establishing a common language in neuropsychology. Some of them are: the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery, the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, the Neuropsi, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Boston Test for Diagnosis of Aphasia, the Wisconsin Classification Test, the Figure Complex of Rey-Osterrieth, etc.

Currently there is a great interest in the rehabilitation of the cognitive sequelae resulting from brain lesions. As a consequence, a new discipline of work known as Neuropsychological Rehabilitation .

This part of the idea of ​​brain plasticity, pointing out that our brain changes with our experiences. Therefore, it exercises through different tasks to patients with brain damage to revert its repercussions or to improve the quality of life of these.

The advance is greater day by day, and can be observed in the great increase of international scientific publications. As well as the largest number of professionals dedicated to their study.

The field of action of neuropsychology has been greatly expanded. Today we also study children's developmental problems, phenomena related to aging, dementias, etc.

Characteristics of neuropsychology

Neuropsychology studies the relationships between the brain and behavior. It differs from other behavioral neurosciences because it focuses on the neural basis of complex mental processes.

That is why such discipline is focused almost exclusively on humans and on behaviors associated with memory, thinking, language and executive functions. As well as complex forms of perception and motor.

According to Portellano (2005), the characteristics of neuropsychology are as follows:

Neuroscience

This discipline is behavioral neuroscience, and uses the scientific method For the study of the brain. You can use both the hypothetical-deductive method and the analytic-deductive method.

In the first hypothesis are proposed that are verified or rejected through the realization of experiments. Whereas, in the second, experiments are made to check the relationship between certain facts or variables.

Study the higher mental functions

Neuropsychology focuses on higher cognitive processes, as well as on the consequences of brain functioning on behavior.

These functions are attention, language, executive functions, memory, gnosis, praxias, etc.

It studies preferably the associative cerebral cortex

It is because this area is in charge of the higher cognitive processes. Neuropsychology focuses on such area because it is very susceptible to damage.

However, other areas such as the thalamus, Basal ganglia , amygdala , hippocampus , cerebellum , etc. Have implications for behavior, and their injury may affect higher mental functions or emotional activity.

Study the consequences of brain damage on cognitive processes

Clinical neuropsychology studies especially the disorders of thought, aphasias, amnesias, agnosias, Apraxia , Disejective syndromes and neurobehavioral alterations.

Uses human models

Although human neuropsychology coexists with that of other mammals, each has its own characteristics. The conclusions drawn from animal cognition can not always be generalized to the cognition Human cognitive processes are different from those of other species.

This is demonstrated by the proportion of neocortex, which is much more developed in humans. There are also behaviors that only humans do, such as our way of communicating or language.

Although research with animal models has provided important information about some human cognitive processes, there are major limitations.

Interdisciplinary nature

The autonomy of neuropsychology has been achieved thanks to the contribution of other disciplines such as neurology, biology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry, nuclear medicine, experimental psychology, pharmacology, cognitive psychology, etc.

Neuropsychologists exercise their activity accompanied by professionals from other disciplines such as neurologists, neurosurgeons, physiotherapists, speech therapists, clinical psychologists, social workers, etc.

To ensure a comprehensive treatment that covers all the deficits that a patient can experience after a brain injury.

Areas of application

The fields of application of neuropsychology are very broad. The neuropsychologist can act in the health, educational, social or scientific research field.

Neuropsychological assessment

Neuropsychology is critical for diagnosing brain damage. This has been the first role that neuropsychologists have played.

Standardized procedures and tests are used that evaluate intelligence, attention, orientation, memory, planning and organization, visuospatial and motor functions, among others.

Neuropsychological assessment is recommended when there is suspicion of any cognitive deficit. It is especially used in traumatic brain injury, Stroke , In learning difficulties, in epileptic pictures, in attention deficit disorders, in suspicion of degenerative processes Dementia , etc.

The evaluation allows to know where the deficits are and their level of gravity. This is essential to be done correctly and to be exhaustive, since according to the results obtained will be fixed a particular treatment.

Neuropsychological assessment is also performed at follow-up to see if the intervention is being effective or modifications are required.

Cognitive rehabilitation

The object of the study of neuropsychology focuses on obtaining intervention programs and rehabilitation Of cognitive functions. The techniques used fall into the field of neurorehabilitation.

The neurorehabilitation programs have to be adapted to each patient, taking into account that there are many variables in each case. For example, age, personality , Profession or educational level, family and socio-cultural context, etc.

Prevention of brain damage

Because there is now an increase in cases of brain damage, neuropsychology needs to be involved in prevention.

This can be done by participating in programs to prevent traffic accidents and work. Or in campaigns to promote the health of cerebrovascular diseases, actions to prevent school failure, or prevention of drug use or other addictions.

Investigation

There is still much to discover about Brain function And their pathologies. It is important to promote research to get closer to these phenomena and find more effective ways to evaluate and treat them.

Research is progressing daily to create new neuropsychological assessment tools, as well as the translation and adaptation of existing ones.

Neuropsychology is also fundamental to create new neuropsychological rehabilitation procedures, relying on new discoveries. Little by little new technologies are being included to achieve this end.

It is also necessary to investigate the neuropsychological profiles of certain disorders, as they are not yet fully known.

References

1. Álvarez Carriles, J.C., Tirapu Ustarroz, J., Ríos Lago, M., & Maestú Unturbe, F. (2008). Manual of neuropsychology. Barcelona: Viguera.
2. Ardila, A., & Rosselli, M. (2007). Clinical neuropsychology. Mexico D. F.: Editorial The Modern Manual.
3. Carrión, J. L. (2015). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. Madrid: Synthesis.
4. Junqué, C., & Ribal, J. D. B. (2010). Manual of neuropsychology. Madrid: Synthesis.
5. Rufo-Campos, M. (2006). Neuropsychology: history, basic concepts and applications. Journal of Neurology, 43 (1), 57-58.
6. Schoenberg, M.R., & Scott, J.G. (2011). The little black book of neuropsychology: A syndrome-based approach. New York: Springer.
7. Neuropsychology (s.f.). Retrieved on February 24, 2017, from Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org.